System and method for use of nanoparticles in imaging and temperature measurement

ABSTRACT

This invention provides a system and method that improves the sensitivity and localization capabilities of Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI) by using combinations of time-varying and static magnetic fields. Combinations of magnetic fields can be used to distribute the signals coming from the magnetic particles among the harmonics and other frequencies in specific ways to improve sensitivity and to provide localization information to speed up or improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of imaging and/or eliminate the need for saturation fields currently used in MPI. In various embodiments, coils can be provided to extend the sub-saturation region in which nanoparticles reside; to provide a static field offset to bring nanoparticles nearer to saturation; to introduce even and odd harmonics that can be observed; and/or to introduce combinations of frequencies for more-defined observation of signals from nanoparticles. Further embodiments provide for reading of the signal produced by cyclically saturated magnetic nanoparticles in a sample so as to provide a measurement of the temperature of those nanoparticles. The spectral distribution of the signal generated provides estimates of the temperature of the nanoparticles. Related factors may also be estimated—binding energies of the nanoparticles, phase changes, bound fraction of the particles or stiffness of the materials in which the nanoparticles are imbedded.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser.No. 60/944,901, filed Jun. 19, 2007, entitled SYSTEM AND METHOD FORIMPROVED NANOPARTICLE LOCALIZATION AND IMAGING, the entire disclosure ofwhich is herein incorporated by reference and U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 60/974,105, filed Sep. 21, 2007, entitled SYSTEMAND METHOD FOR MEASURING TEMPERATURE USING THE SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OFMAGNETIC PARTICLE IMAGING SIGNALS, the entire disclosure of which isherein incorporated by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to non-invasive imaging of magnetic particles,and more particularly to Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI), and to usingmagnetic particles as biomarkers for measuring particle temperature andbinding characteristics of infused magnetic particles.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The localization and imaging of magnetic particles and particularlynanoparticles (e.g. discrete particulate structures sized in thenanometer range) is becoming increasingly important for developing newdiagnostic methods. Magnetic particles (e.g. iron oxide or ironparticles having a magnetic characteristic) have recently been employedin several forms of imaging including MRI (See: H. Dahnke and T.Schaeffter: Limits of Detection of SPIO at 3.0 T Using T2 Relaxometry,Magnetic Resonance in Medicine 53:1202-1206 (2005). Recently, arelatively new method termed “Magnetic Particle Imaging” or MPI. MPI wasintroduced in a paper by B. Gleich and J. Weizenecker entitledTomographic Imaging Using the Nonlinear Response of Magnetic Particles,Nature Vol. 435(30): 1214-9 Jun. 2005. Currently, this new technique(MPI) has received a good deal of attention in the wider press becauseof the promise of the method. See: C. Day, Novel Medical Imaging MethodShows Promise, Physics Today, Sep. 21-22, 2005. The teachings of each ofthe above three articles/papers being expressly incorporated herein byreference.

Thus, magnetic particles are becoming important in a wide variety ofendeavors and applications. In medical applications, such magneticparticles are being used to identify pathology as well as to treatpathology like cancer and heart disease. In general, magnetic substancesare relatively easy to detect using various detection and imagingtechnologies. A further discussion of the use of MPI, in the imaging ofhuman bodily structures is disclosed in published U.S. PatentApplication No. 2003/0085703, entitled METHOD OF DETERMINING THE SPATIALDISTRIBUTION OF MAGNETIC PARTICLES by Bernhard Gleich, the teachings ofwhich are expressly incorporated herein by reference. Reference will nowbe made to FIGS. 1 and 2, which illustrate a basic implementation of anMPI system in accordance with Gleich.

The MPI system detects particles in the field-free point 210 (FIG. 2below) where there is very little static field. Those particles in thefield free point produce signal at the harmonics, most strongly at thethird harmonic.

As shown in FIG. 1, a plurality 100 a, 100 b of coil pairs are arrangedabove (100 a) and beneath (100 b) a patient (or other subject to beexamined) 110 positioned on a table top, which is substantiallynon-magnetic. As described further below, the patient has been infusedwith magnetic nanoparticles. These particles can be formed with avariety of substances and in a range of sizes. In one example, theparticles each comprise a spherical substrate, for example, of glasswhich is covered with a soft magnetic layer having a thickness of, forexample, approximately 5 nm. This layer can consist, for example, of aniron nickel alloy (for example, permalloy). This soft magnetic layer maybe covered, for example, with a further covering layer, which protectsthe particle against acids and other bodily fluids and/or environmentalagents.

The range of these coil pairs defines the examination zone. The firstcoil pair includes the two identically constructed windings 102 a and102 b, which are arranged coaxially above and beneath the patient orsample and conduct equally large but oppositely directed sinusoidalcurrents (indicated by oppositely arranged X's and dots). The gradientmagnetic field thus generated can be represented by the field lines 200shown in FIG. 2. In the direction of the (perpendicular) axis of thecoil pair it has a substantially constant gradient and in a point 202 onthis axis (dashed line 210) it reaches the value zero. Starting fromthis field-free point, the strength of the magnetic field increases inall three spatial directions as a function of the distance from thispoint. In a zone 210 which is denoted by a dashed circle (the firstsub-zone) around the field-free point the field strength is so low thatthe magnetization of magnetic particles present therein is notsaturated, whereas the magnetization is in a state of saturation outsidethe zone 210. In the zone remaining outside the zone 210 (the secondsub-zone 220) the magnetization of the particles is in the saturatedstate.

The strength of the magnetic field required for the saturation of themagnetization of particles is dependent on their diameter andcomposition. Smaller particle require a larger magnetic field tosaturate them than larger particles. When a coating of a material havinga lower saturation magnetization is chosen, lower field values areenabled. The size of the zone 301 determines the spatial resolution ofthe system, and is partly dependent on the strength of the gradient ofthe gradient magnetic field and also on the strength of the magneticfield required for saturation. By way of example, for a 100-microndiameter and a gradient of 0.2 T/m of the magnetic field, the zone 210(in which the magnetization of the particles is not saturated) defines asize of approximately 1 mm.

In order to appropriately image structures within the patient or othersubject 100 under examination, the system must extract informationconcerning the spatial concentration of the magnetic particles withinthe subject 100. As such, a plurality of coil winding pairs is arrangedabove and beneath the subject 100 and/or the table top 112.

When a further magnetic field is superimposed on the gradient magneticfield in the examination zone, the zone 210 is shifted in the directionof this additional magnetic field, the extent of the shift being greateras the strength of the magnetic field is greater. When the superimposedmagnetic field is variable in time, the position of the zone 210 changesaccordingly in time and in space.

In order to generate such temporally variable magnetic fields for anyarbitrary direction in space, three further coil winding pairs 104 a and104 b, 106 a and 106 b, and 108 a and 108 b are provided coaxially withthe first winding pair 102 a, 102 b. The coil winding pair 104 a, 104 bgenerates a magnetic field which extends in the direction of the coilaxis (dashed line 130) of the coil winding pair 102 a, 102 b (alignedvertically in this example). To this end, the two windings 104 a, 104 bare supplied with equal currents which also flow in the same directionas adjacent windings 102 a, 102 b. The effect of coil winding pair 104a, 104 b can also be achieved by superimposing currents flowing in thesame direction on the oppositely directed equal currents in the coilwinding pair 102 a, 102 b so that the current in one coil pair decreaseswhile it increases in the other coil winding pair. However, it may beadvantageous when the temporally constant gradient magnetic field andthe temporally variable vertical magnetic field are generated byseparate coil pairs.

In order to generate magnetic fields which extend horizontally in spacein the longitudinal direction of the patient/subject 100, and also in adirection perpendicular thereto (e.g. generally parallel to the axis130), there are provided two further coaxial coil winding pairs 106 aand 106 b, and 108 a and 108 b. In this example the coil winding pairs106 a, 106 b and 108 a, 108 b are not of a Helmholz-type—while the coilwinding pairs 102 a, 102 b and 104 a, 104 b can be of a Helmholz-type.To employ Helmholz-type coil winding pairs to generate horizontal fieldswould require them to be arranged along the sides of the examinationzone—for example, windings each respectively arranged to the left and tothe right of the examination zone and in front of and behind theexamination zone. This arrangement may be impractical, as it impededaccess to the examination area.

Thus, as shown, the windings 106 a, 106 b and 108 a, 108 b of the coilpairs are arranged coaxially above and beneath the examination zone, andhence they employ a winding configuration different than that of thecoil winding pair 104 a, 104 b. Note that coils of this configurationare known and available in connection with magnetic resonance apparatuswith an open magnet (e.g. open MRI) in which an RF coil pair is arrangedabove and beneath the examination zone so as to generate a horizontal,temporally variable magnetic field.

FIG. 1 also shows a further pickup/sensing coil(s) 150 which providesfor the detection of signals generated in the examination zone. Inprinciple any of the field-generating coil winding pairs 102 a and 102b, 104 a and 104 b, 106 a and 106 b, and/or 108 a and 108 b can be usedfor this purpose. However, the use of a separate receiving coil offersadvantages. A more attractive signal-to-noise ratio is obtained (notablywhen a plurality of receiving coils is used) and the sensing coil(s) 150can be arranged and switched in such a manner that it is decoupled fromthe other coils.

In operation, the coil winding pairs 104 a and 104 b, 106 a and 106 b,and 108 a and 108 b receive their currents from current amplifiers 170.The variation in time of the currents I_(x), I_(y), and I_(z) which areamplified and produce the desired magnetic fields is imposed by arespective waveform generator 172. The waveform generators arecontrolled by a system control unit 174, which calculates the variationin time of the currents as required for the relevant examination methodand loads this variation into the waveform generators. During theexamination these signals are read from the waveform generators 172 andapplied to the amplifiers 170, which generate the sinusoidal currentsI_(x), I_(y), and I_(z) required for the coil winding pairs 104 a and104 b, 106 a and 106 b, and 108 a and 108 b on the basis thereof.

Generally, a non-linear relationship exists between the shift of thezone 210 from its position at the center of the gradient coil system 102a, 102 b and the current through the gradient coil system. Moreover, allthree coils should generate a magnetic field when the zone 210 is to beshifted along a line extending outside the center 202. This is takeninto account by the system's control unit 174 while imposing thevariation in time of the currents, for example, by employing appropriatelookup tables. The zone 210, therefore, can be shifted along arbitrarilyformed paths through the examination zone.

The signals S received by the sensing coil(s) 150 are applied to anamplifier 180 via a suitable filter 182. The output signals of theamplifier 180 are digitized by an analog-to-digital converter 184 so asto be applied to an image processing unit 186, which reconstructs thespatial distribution of the particles from the signals and the knownposition of the zone 210 during the reception of the signals S. An imageof the sensed particle distribution can be displayed on an appropriatedisplay monitor 188 (or otherwise rendered into a viewable image).

The signal produced from a harmonic field with an additional staticfield imposed has been characterized as discussed in FrequencyDistribution of the Nanoparticle Magnetization in the Presence of aStatic as Well as a Harmonic Magnetic Field, Medical Physics 35,1988-1994, 2008, by J. B. Weaver, A. M. Rauwerdink, C. R. Sullivan, I.Baker. The second harmonic produced when there is a static field islarger than the third harmonic providing superior signal to noise. Inaddition, the size of the static field contributes localizationinformation that contributes to the signal localization. See ImagingMagnetic Nanoparticles Using the Signal's Frequency Spectrum, Proceduresof SPIE on Medical Imaging, Volume 6916, 6916-35, 2008, by J. B. Weaver,A. M. Rauwerdink, B. S. Trembly, C. R. Sullivan. Further, a combinationof harmonic fields produce signal at many specific frequencies which canalso be used to contribute localization information.

In medical applications, the ability to attach a nanoparticle tomolecular agents that localize in pathology is very promising for bothdiagnosis and treatment. Also, a highly significant aspect of MPI is thepromised sensitivity. Antibody-tagged nanoparticles can be targeted tocancer or other cells in very specific ways but highly selectivetargeting will generally collect relatively few nanoparticles to aspecific location so sensitivity is critical. For example, targetingindividual cells would be important to track a metastasis. In view ofthese promising new medical applications and techniques, it is, thus,highly desirable to refine the above-described system and method forperforming MPI to achieve even higher imaging resolution and particlelocalization accuracy.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention overcomes the disadvantages of the prior art by providinga system and method that improves the sensitivity and localizationcapabilities of Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI) by using combinations ofstatic and oscillating magnetic fields. Combinations of magnetic fieldscan be used to distribute the signals coming from the magnetic particlesamong the harmonics in specific ways to improve sensitivity and toprovide localization information to speed up or improve thesignal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of imaging and/or eliminate the need forsaturation fields currently used in MPI. In one embodiment, the signalfrom particles along a static or slowly varying magnetic field arecollected rather than collecting signal only from the field free point,in contrast to the prior art, improving the signal and allowing smallergradients or better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) to be achieved. Inanother embodiment, the second harmonic signal from nanoparticles can beenabled by a localized static field scanned across the object ratherthan saturating the third harmonic to achieve localization as in priorart. In another embodiment, the static field of an MRI system can beused to create a field offset allowing the signal in the second harmonicto be detected, rather than using only the signal at the third harmonic,to create a combined imaging modality where the particles are imagedusing magnetic particle imaging and the anatomy is imaged usingconventional magnetic resonance imagery (MRI). In another embodiment, acombination of harmonic fields can be used to place the harmonics atfrequencies that are not harmonics of the amplifiers so as to reducenoise and provide extra localization information.

In another embodiment, static field coils can be employed in conjunctionwith selection and drive coils to provide a static offset to thefield-free region so that particles are brought nearer to a saturationlevel therein. In this manner, greater imaging performance is achievedfor a given nanoparticle concentration within a subject. In anotherembodiment, drive coils can be combined with static field and gradientcoils the increase the physical range of the sub-saturation region fornanoparticles. Localization of particles includes observing thedistribution of signal among the harmonics generated by the particles inconjunction with the monitoring of the control system that generateswaveforms in the magnetic-field coils. In another embodiment, staticfield and gradient coils can be combined with drive coils in a novelarrangement to increase the range of the sub-saturation region and alsoto provide various regions with static field offset. Localization ofnanoparticles entails observing the distribution of signal among theharmonics and incrementing the static field offset and gradient fieldswhile monitoring this function within the imaging system. In yet anotherembodiment, the static and field gradient coils are combined withmultiple drive coils that each transmit at a discrete frequency orfrequencies. In this arrangement, localization of the nanoparticlesentails observing the distribution of signal among the frequenciesgenerated by nanoparticles and also observing the combination of variousfrequencies. A variety of additional arrangements of coils and types ofgenerated magnetic fields can be employed in further alternateembodiments.

In further illustrative embodiments this invention provides a system andmethod for reading the signal produced by cyclically saturated magneticparticles in a sample so as to provide a measurement of the temperatureof those nanoparticles. The spectral distribution of the signalgenerated provides estimates of the temperature. More particularly, thesecond and third harmonics increase monotonically with decreasingtemperature of the particles and increases monotonically with increasingamplitude of the magnetic field saturating the particles, termed thedriving field. Further, the ratio of the fifth and third harmonics ismonotonically in the same fashion, however, the ratio of the fifth andthird harmonics is independent of particle concentration. Because theharmonics and their ratios change monotonically, the temperature can befound from the harmonics or their ratio. The harmonics also change withparticle size distribution. However, by observing the harmonic signalsas the amplitude of the driving field is changed a calibration curve canbe obtained from the sample of particles in vivo. Therefore, this methodof estimating temperature can be used for any size distribution obtainedin vivo or even changing size distributions. Indeed, the sizedistribution of the particles injected might be very different from thesize distribution in any given position in vivo but this should notaffect the results because the calibration curve can be obtained in vivoat any time by changing the amplitude of the drive field. Indeed, thechanges observed in successive calibration curves can be used toestimate other properties such as size distribution and kinetics. Inaddition, once the binding energy is known, the bound fraction can bemonitored longitudinally. Related factors may also be estimated usingthe procedure of this embodiment—that is, binding energies of thenanoparticles and phase changes of the materials in which thenanoparticles are imbedded. In one embodiment, the particle outputvoltage of a plurality of harmonics (for example the third and fifthharmonics or other combinations) are correlated to derive thetemperature of the particles in accordance with a Langevin function,which accounts for the independent, isotropic spins induced in theheated particles. In an exemplary implementation, the sample beingmeasured resides in a pickup coil, which is surrounded by a drive coil.A balancing coil or other technique can be used to reduce the effect ofthe driving frequency on measurements. Image gradient coils can beemployed with corresponding imaging electronics to providetemperature-dependent images of the particles within the sample, orother internal structure. However, the illustrative systems and methodsfor measuring temperature can be used without imaging as well.

In an illustrative embodiment, particles with antibodies targeted forcancer cells are injected in the subject. Following binding, a verylarge applied magnetic field is used to heat the particles in thecancer. The ratio of the harmonics would be used to monitor heating tomake sure therapeutic temperatures are achieved in the cancer. Inanother embodiment, the distribution of the applied fields is changesusing temperature information to achieve better therapy. In anotherembodiment, the harmonics at a constant temperature are used to measurethe binding strength of the antibody targeting agents for diagnostic orother purposes including the suitability of therapy. In anotherembodiment, the harmonics at a constant temperature are used to estimatethe number of antibody targeted particles that are bound and the numberthat are unbound for diagnostic purposes or to know when to starttherapy. In another embodiment, the harmonics are used to estimate whena phase change has occurred in the material in which the articles arelocated.

All of the above-described embodiments can be employed as discretesystems and methods or combined with MPI methods or the imaging methodsdescribed here or other imaging methods to create images of theparameters measured. For example, by combining a plurality of systemsand methods temperature maps or temperature images can be obtainedinstead of determining the average temperature in a single volume.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention description below refers to the accompanying drawings, ofwhich:

FIG. 1, already described, is a schematic diagram of an exemplaryimplementation of an MPI system for use in examination of the internalstructure of a human patient according to the prior art;

FIG. 2, already described, is a field diagram of the most-adjacentgradient coil to the central field-free zone within the patient/subject;

FIG. 3 is highly schematic diagram of the prior art MPI system of FIG. 1showing the selection and drive coils, sensing coils and detailing thecharacteristic magnetic field distribution relative to position withinthe coil arrangement;

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of an improved MPI system and generatedmagnetic field distribution employing a static field offset according toan embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of an improved MPI system and generatedmagnetic field distribution employing an enlarged region in which asignal is generated according to another embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of an improved MPI system and generatedmagnetic field distribution employing a signal generated from the entireregion between drive coils according to yet another embodiment of theinvention;

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of an improved MPI system and generatedmagnetic field distribution employing a signal generated from the entireregion between drive coils, and the drive coils each generating adifferent frequency, according to yet another embodiment of theinvention;

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of an alternating current heating coil foractivating a sample having magnetic nanoparticles according to thisinvention;

FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram of the alternating current heating coil ofFIG. 8 in combination with a coaxial pickup coil that senses outputsignals in the nanoparticles of the sample in response to excitation bythe heating coil according to an illustrative embodiment;

FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of the alternating current heating coiland pickup coil of FIG. 9, and further including imaging coils andassociated imaging electronics for forming an image of the heatednanoparticles within the sample, according to an embodiment of thisinvention;

FIG. 11 is an exploded perspective view of an arrangement for sensingthe temperature of heated nanoparticles in a sample consisting of acoaxial drive, balancing and pickup coil, and associated sensing/controlcircuitry according to an illustrative embodiment;

FIG. 12 is a perspective view of the assembled temperature-sensingarrangement of FIG. 11 with the sample inserted thereinto;

FIG. 13 is a curve of an exemplary output-voltage-to-temperature curvefor the third harmonic of the nanoparticle output signal sensed by thepickup coil of the illustrative temperature-sensing arrangement;

FIG. 14 is a curve of an exemplary output-voltage-to-temperature curvefor the fifth harmonic of the nanoparticle output signal sensed by thepickup coil of the illustrative temperature-sensing arrangement;

FIG. 15 is an exemplary curve of the relationship between the fieldvalue H_(TE) with respect to actual nanoparticle temperature; and

FIG. 16 is a magnetic nanoparticle detection/imaging system employing avery-high-sensitivity pickup device to measure the output signal fromthe magnetic nanoparticles in accordance with an illustrativeembodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

I. Improved Localization and Imaging

Reference is made to FIG. 3 which again describes a simplified MPIsystem 300 like the MPI system described above with reference to FIG. 1.This system 300 is again discussed and illustrated for the purposes ofcomparison with the following improved system arrangements describedbelow. The views and graphs depicted are generally two-dimensional, butshould be taken to describe the resulting field characteristics in threedimensions. The system 300 consists of groups of drive and selectioncoils 310 a and 310 b that define therebetween a magnetic field region320 that can be characterized by the graph 330. The curve 332 definesthe magnetic field across the subject produced by the coils to localizethe nanoparticle signal versus position within to the region 320 (e.g.distance from either coil 310 a, 310 b). As described above, theselection and drive coils are operatively connected with a controlsystem 350. The control system includes appropriate hardware andsoftware (as described above) for amplifying waveforms in the coilwindings and generating the desired field-free region 352. Thisfield-free region 352 is exemplified by the flat curve segment 354 whichruns approximately along the O-T value of the vertical axis (magneticfield strength). On either side of the field-free region 352, the fieldincreases in opposing directions with the relative proximity to theadjacent coil (curve segments 356 and 358. Beyond the saturating field,exemplified by horizontal limit lines 360 and 362 about the horizontal(position) axis, the field strength is sufficient to saturate allmagnetic particles in these positions, thereby eliminating any signaloutside the voxel of interest. Particularly, the prior art MPI system300 of FIG. 3 operates to impose a large, alternating magnetic field onthe nanoparticles so that the induced magnetization is saturated. Thesaturation creates a distortion in the magnetization giving rise toharmonics which can be detected and which allow the number ofnanoparticles to be quantified. Nanoparticles that are saturated by aharmonic magnetic field only produce odd harmonics. The systemcontemplates imaging of the nanoparticles using a static field tosaturate all the particles outside the given volume, and as that volumeis swept across the subject, an image can then be formed by sensing theharmonics of the swept field using the sensing coils 370, 372 incombination with the above-described imaging system/display.

Hence, the signal from particles along a static or slowly varyingmagnetic field are collected rather than collecting signal only from thefield free point, in contrast to the prior art, thereby improving thesignal and allowing smaller gradients or better signal-to-noise ratio(SNR) to be achieved.

An improved MPI system 400 in accordance with a novel embodiment of thisinvention is shown in FIG. 4. In this embodiment, the selection anddrive coils 410 are essentially the same as the system 300 above.However, they have been supplemented with respective static field coils420 a, 420 b that, under direction of the control unit 450 generate astatic field offset (horizontal line 428 on the related graph 430). Thisstatic field offset moves the horizontal segment 454 of the fieldstrength-versus-position curve 432 away from the O-T value of thevertical axis. In one embodiment, the static field can be generated byMRI coils.

The static field of an MRI system can be used to create a field offsetallowing the signal in the second harmonic to be detected, rather thanusing only the signal at the third harmonic, to create a combinedimaging modality where the particles are imaged using magnetic particleimaging and the anatomy is imaged using conventional magnetic resonanceimagery (MRI).

Note that a combination of harmonic fields can be used to place thesecond and third harmonics at frequencies that are not harmonics of thesystem's sensing amplifiers so as to reduce noise and provide extralocalization information.

This static magnetic field nearly saturates the nanoparticles allowing amuch smaller alternating magnetic field to thereby saturate thenanoparticles (i.e. the line 428 is moved closer to the upper saturationfield 360). High-frequency alternating fields can be used withrelatively low power producing relatively high power because the signalis proportional to frequency or alternatively or in addition a sweptstatic field could be employed. Most of the nanoparticles can besaturated many times per unit time, by a sinusoidal current, obtainingboth large numbers of nanoparticles saturated and a higher frequency ofsaturation so the signal is increased both of which increase the signalproduced. Note that the use of static field coils can also be employedwith others embodiments of the invention as described further below.

In another embodiment, shown in FIG. 5, the system 500 includesselection and drive coils 510 a, 510 b similar to those described aboveas well as static field and gradient coils 520 a and 520 b, all of whichare controlled by a control system 550 that generates appropriateamplitudes and waveforms in the coils. In this embodiment, the staticfield offset generated by the coils 520 a, 520 b, in combination withthe gradient serves to enlarge the region 552 from which thenanoparticles generate a signal. Also, it is contemplated thatcombinations of static and time-varying magnetic fields from the coilscan be used to produce harmonics at a variety of frequencies, phases,amplitudes and directions that can be used to localize the nanoparticlesor increase the signal generated from the nanoparticles. As such, thisimplementation adds even (primarily 2^(nd)) harmonics as well as odd(primarily 3^(rd)) harmonics, thereby partly increasing the signal. Theadditional harmonics allows the imaging system (via a link 536) tobetter localize a signal by observing the distribution of the harmonicsalong the gradient. In particular, localization entails observing (withthe sensing coils 570, 572) the distribution of harmonics and differencesignals; e.g., those described in Microwave Engineering by Paul Pozar,John Wiley and Sons, pages 503-504, the teachings of which are expresslyincorporated herein by reference. The total signal-per-unit timecollected increases in this approach because the larger region 552 (seealso graph 530 and the flatter curve 532) is employed. In addition, thesignal increases because parts of that region are provided with staticfield offsets that increase the signal from the particles.

Note that a variety of particle-localization techniques can be employedin accordance with various embodiments. For example, multiple-frequencyharmonic fields can produce a signal at the difference between the twofrequencies and at a variety of other frequencies. When the frequencycontent changes with position, because one of the alternating field'sstrengths change with position, the position of the nanoparticles can beisolated by the signal strength at each frequency. Similarly, the phaseof the harmonic fields can be used to localize the nanoparticles aswell. The uniform and spatially varying magnetic fields can be arbitraryfunctions of time including, but not limited, to sinusoids, harmonic,square and triangular waves.

Referring now to FIG. 6, an embodiment of an MPI system 600 is shown,that may be free of the particular coil implementations of, for example,the above-incorporated U.S. Patent Application No. 2003/0085703. Thesystem 600 is generally similar in function to system 500 above, in thatit includes drive and selection coils 610 a, 610 b, as well as staticfiled and gradient coils 620 a, 620 b. These are controlled to deliverwaveforms at a given amplitude to various coils by the control system650. In this embodiment, the generated nanoparticle signal is generatedover substantially the entire region 652 (see also graph 630 and curve632) between coils 610 a, 610 b, 620 a, 620 b, because the coils havenow been arranged to create sub-saturation-level fields (within graphfield-strength limit lines 360, 362) across this entire region 652. Thisarrangement generates identifiable even and odd harmonics are created inthe particle signal in a manner described above with reference to thesystem 500. The generation can be monitored by the imaging systemthrough a link 636 with the control system 650.

More particularly, in this embodiment, localization of the signal fromnanoparticles entails observing (with the sensing coils 670, 672) thedistribution of harmonics and difference frequencies, and incrementing(with control system 550) the static field offset and gradient field(via coils 520 a, 520 b) to achieve different predetermined values. Assuch the total signal-per-unit time collected is significantly increasedboth due to the significantly larger region 652 and because parts of theregion have static offsets.

FIG. 7 details another embodiment of an MPI system 700 in accordancewith this invention that may employ arrangements of components similarto those of the system 600 described above. In this embodiment, thesignal is also desirably generated across the entire region 752 betweencoils (as denoted by the graph 730 and curve 732). Notably, in thisembodiment, the control system 750 drives each of two drive coils 710 aand 710 b at different frequencies (F1 and F2, respectively). Static andgradient coils 720 a, 720 b, like those described above, are alsoemployed and function similarly to the systems described above. The twofrequencies F1 and F2 generated by the respective drive coils 710 a, 710b result in the generation of signal at a series of interferencefrequencies that depend on the relative amplitude of the drive fields atthe two frequencies. More coils at different frequencies can be added tofurther localize the nanoparticles.

Localization of the signal from nanoparticles within the subject entailsobserving the distribution of harmonics and the combinations offrequencies, which is characteristic for each position relative to thedrive coils and gradient coils. The characteristic combination of signalstrengths for each position allows the position of the nanoparticles tobe identified by inverting the measured distribution of signalstrengths. This allows for more accurate resolution of particles as thefrequencies generated by the coils are correlated via the control systemlink 736 with the imaging system. In addition, as described above, thelarger region and static offset provided by the coil arrangement of thisembodiment desirably provides a higher signal strength fromnanoparticles.

It should be apparent that a variety of arrangements and combinations ofmagnetic-field-generating components can be provided to effect imagingin accordance with alternate embodiments of this invention. For example,nanoparticles can be imaged with the subject on a fixed stage that isthen moved into an MRI device for imaging of the anatomy. An MPI systemin accordance with this invention is mounted in conjunction with the MRIand the subject is infused with a low concentration of nanoparticles.This hybrid or combination system, thus, employs the MRI to image theanatomy and the MPI to image the nanoparticles in the very lowconcentrations. The same subject-support structure/stage can be used tofacilitate co-registration between the two systems. In particular, theacquired images of each system can be co-registered so the nanoparticleimage is co-registered with the MRI anatomy in the imaging system. Thisarrangement can therefore be used as PET-CT systems are employedclinically. The method of increasing the signal from the nanoparticlesdescribed above for systems 500 and 600 is achieved if the correct placein the static field is used for magnetic particle imaging.

II. Temperature Sensing

It is recognized that nanoparticles can be heated by remote mechanisms,including electromagnetic excitation (i.e. hysteresis). The heating ofmagnetic particles, infused into a local region of a patient's body canbe used in the important application of hyperthermia treatment. That isa localized region of the body is heated to eliminate thermallysensitive cells and tissues, such as those often encountered in variousforms of cancer. By understanding how magnetic particles react undervaried temperature, one can also derive information and images of theparticles' relative temperature and the temperature distribution withinthe body or other internal structure. Other characteristics, such asphase change can also be imaged and mapped. More particularly, thesignal produced by cyclically saturated magnetic nanoparticles canprovide a measurement of the temperature of those nanoparticles. Thespectral distribution of the signal generated provides estimates of thetemperature. Related factors may also be estimated: binding energies ofthe nanoparticles and phase changes or stiffness of the materials orcells to which the nanoparticles are connected. Note also that there aremany other possible applications for measurement of temperature inaddition to those in the field of medical hyperthermia treatment.

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram detailing a generalized arrangement 800for heating infused magnetic nanoparticles contained in a sample 810 orother internal structure (shown in phantom) according to an embodimentof this invention. The “sample” as shown and described herein can be asimple container with a heatable medium, or a more complex structure,such as the above-described human body. The term “subject” can be usedas an alternative to the word “sample”. This basic example includes onlythe heating element (no imaging components), which is a liquid-cooledcoil 820 that is interconnected to an alternating current power supplyhaving a sufficient power level and frequency to generate the desiredheating effect in the sample 810.

As shown in FIG. 9, the arrangement 900 includes a pickup coil 910located coaxially between the nanoparticles heating coil 820 and thenanoparticle-containing sample 810. Note that the heating coil 820 isexemplary and a variety of alternate techniques can be employed to heatnanoparticles within an internal structure in alternate embodiments ofthe invention. This arrangement is a basic embodiment of atemperature-measurement system in which the principles of this inventioncan be applied to allow interconnected sensing circuitry 920 (operatingin accordance with the procedures described below) to measure thetemperature of the nanoparticles of the sample 810 at predeterminedlocations therein.

Referring now to FIG. 10, an MPI imaging system according to aconventional implementation, or an improved version as contemplatedherein, is incorporated into the temperature measurement arrangement 900of FIG. 9. The resulting arrangement 1000 includes a pair of opposed MPIimaging field coils 1010 and 1020 adapted to generate an image of theexcited nanoparticles (which can be also acted upon by other MPIgradient coils (not shown) of conventional or improved design). Theimage is processed by an appropriate controller 1050, which interactswith the sensing circuitry 920 of the pickup coil 910, as shown. In thismanner, the sensed localized temperature and temperature variation canbe mapped with respect to an image that can be viewed on aninterconnected display 1060.

The measurement of temperature by the controller 1050 and sensingcircuitry 920 relies upon a model for the hysteresis curve exhibited bythe magnetically excited nanoparticles in the sample 810. This modeldescribes the magnetization of the nanoparticles, which is what producesthe underlying signal that is observed by the pickup coil 910. The modelused for independent, isotropic spins is a Langevin function. Even insystems where the superparamagnetic model is not strictly applicable,the model provides a good estimate of temperature. The basis for themodel is that thermal motion prevents the nanoparticles from aligningperfectly with respect to the applied magnetic field (produced via thecoil 820). The result is a balance between the forces induced by theapplied magnetic field and thermal activity of the nanoparticles.

An exemplary arrangement 1100 employed to test thetemperature-measurement principles described herein (for example, asprovided in FIG. 9) is shown in respective exploded and assembled viewsin FIGS. 11 and 12. This example comprises resonant coil 1110 thatdrives the magnetization harmonically using an appropriate alternatingcurrent drive circuit that is part of a controller 1120. The receivecircuit is a pickup coil 1130 that resides coaxially within the drivecoil 1110. The pickup coil 1130 records the voltage induced in theparticles by the magnetization. In this embodiment, the particles areplaced in a magnetically-transparent container 1140 that residescoaxially within the pickup coil 1140. In alternate embodiments othertechniques for suspending a sample or sample within the pickup coil 1140can be employed. The signal voltage at each harmonic frequency ismeasured by a sensing circuitry 1150 within the controller, which isinterconnected to the pickup coil. The drive coil 1110 is characterizedas a solenoid resonant coil having (in this example) approximately 1400wire turns 1160 along a cylinder which is approximately 10 cm long. Thesinusoidal current is produced by an audio amplifier fed by a signalgenerator within the controller circuit 1120. The sinusoidal voltage isset at the resonant frequency of the coil 1110. In this embodiment, thepick up coil 1130 resides coaxially inside both the drive coil 1110 anda series-connected balancing coil 1180 placed at the end of the drivecoil 1110 and coaxially between the drive coil and the pickup coil. Thebalancing coil is optional in alternate embodiments. In this example,the balancing coil 1180 serves to reduce the voltage at the drivefrequency so the signals generated by the nanoparticles can be amplifiedsufficiently to be recorded by the controller 1120. Graphical and/oralphanumeric readings of temperature can be provided by aninterconnected display and user interface 1190 of any acceptable type,which is connected to the controller 1120 and sensing circuitry 1150.

In a group of magnetically activated particles, the characteristichysteresis curve determines the magnetization induced in a material by atime-varying magnetic field. Even for relatively high concentrations ofsuspended nanoparticles, such as those present in magnetic fluids(ferrofluids for example), the magnetization is well-defined by treatingthe particles as independent, isotropic spins governed by a combinationof statistical thermal fluctuations and the applied magnetic field. SeeR. Kaiser and G. Miskoloczy, Magnetic Properties of Stable Dispersionsof Subdomain Magnetite Particles, J. Appl. Phys. 41 (1970) 1064-72,which is incorporated by reference herein as further backgroundinformation. It follows that suspensions of nanoparticles should beaccurately described by the same theory because the particles are moredisperse and are small enough to be characterized as a single magneticdomain. The hysteresis curve for a group of identical nanoparticlesshould be well-described by a Langevin function. See Kaiser. Hence, themagnetization, M, for a harmonic driving field is:

$\begin{matrix}{M = {M_{0}\{ {{\cosh ( \frac{{vM}_{0}H}{4\pi \; {kT}} )} - ( \frac{{vM}_{0}H}{4\pi \; {kT}} )^{- 1}} \}}} & {{Eq}.\mspace{11mu} 1}\end{matrix}$

where M is the magnetization, M₀ is the bulk magnetization, v is thevolume of the particle, H is the applied field, k is the Boltzmannconstant and T is the absolute temperature. In this case, the appliedfield consists of the sinusoidal field, H_(s)=H₀ sin(ωt), and theconstant bias field (generated by bias coils), H_(bias):

$\begin{matrix}{M = {M_{0}\{ {{\cosh ( \frac{{vM}_{0}( {{H_{0}{\sin ( {\omega \; t} )}} + H_{bias}} )}{4\pi \; {kT}} )} - ( \frac{{vM}_{0}( {{H_{0}{\sin ( {\omega \; t} )}} + H_{bias}} )}{4\pi \; {kT}} )^{- 1}} \}}} & {{Eq}.\mspace{14mu} 2}\end{matrix}$

Note that it is useful to think about the effects of temperature as aneffective field which scales the applied field:

$\begin{matrix}{{M = {M_{0}\{ {{\cosh ( \frac{{H_{0}{\sin ( {\omega \; t} )}} + H_{bias}}{H_{TE}} )} - ( \frac{{H_{0}{\sin ( {\omega \; t} )}} + H_{bias}}{H_{TE}} )^{- 1}} \}}}{where}} & {{Eq}.\mspace{11mu} 3} \\{H_{TE} = \frac{4\pi \; {kT}}{{vM}_{0}}} & {{Eq}.\mspace{11mu} 4}\end{matrix}$

is the temperature equivalent field. The value H_(TE) scales the appliedfield in the above Eq. 3, so for a large value of H_(TE), acorrespondingly larger applied field is required to influence thenanoparticles. H_(TE) is larger for smaller particles, and also forparticles with a smaller bulk magnetization or for particles havinghigher temperatures. The thermal disordering of the nanoparticlemagnetizations, reflected by H_(TE), reduces the ability of the appliedfield to align the individual nanoparticle magnetizations into amacroscopic effect.

It should be noted that collections of sensed particles of differentsizes are described by multiple Langevin functions, and although thecharacteristic properties of the hysteresis curve remain the same, theshape of the curve depends on the distribution of sizes and properties.The size distribution is generally normally distributed. The primaryeffect of the particle radius is on the corresponding particle volume ofthe nanoparticle, v, but the particle size also affects the coercivefield. The coercive field is a measure of the phase of the magnetizationrelative to the applied field and does not influence the shape of thehysteresis curve, just the translation of it which can be represented asa time shift in Eq. 3 above. A time shift represents a phase change inthe frequency domain so the effect of nanoparticle size on the coercivefield causes interference between the magnetizations of thenanoparticles of different sizes.

The most stable technique for estimating H_(TE), and therefore theparticle temperature, is by employing a least squares fit of theparticle's signal at three or more harmonic frequencies to thosecalculated by a simple Langevin function. There exists no redundancybetween signals, and if a significant signal is observed at all thefrequencies, the temperature estimates at each harmonic will bereasonably stable with respect to each other. Hence the calculation oftemperature based upon a plurality of harmonics allows for a fairlyaccurate and reliable estimate of actual particle temperature.

Referring to the exemplary curves of FIGS. 13 and 14 (1300 and 1400),the respective signal outputs for the third and fifth harmonics in afunctional example (refer to FIGS. 11 and 12 above). Each curve 1310 and1410 respectively plots the measured signal in microvolts versus theabsolute temperature (Kelvin) for the measured particles. As shown, thesignal at each harmonic frequency increases generally with temperature,thereby providing the requisite technique to measure nanoparticletemperature according to this invention. Note that the curves 1310, 1410are highly similar in slope and profile and relatively linear at highertemperatures in which the particles will normally be measured. The curve1310 for the third harmonic is nearly two orders of magnitude greaterthan the curve 1410 for the fifth harmonic, allowing for separation ofthe respective signals.

Note that the second and third harmonics increase monotonically withdecreasing temperature of the particles and increases monotonically withincreasing amplitude of the magnetic field saturating the particles,termed the driving field. Further, the ratio of the fifth and thirdharmonics is monotonically in the same fashion, however, the ratio ofthe fifth and third harmonics is independent of particle concentration.Because the harmonics and their ratios change monotonically, thetemperature can be found from the harmonics or their ratio. Theharmonics also change with particle size distribution. However, byobserving the harmonic signals as the amplitude of the driving field ischanged a calibration curve can be obtained from the sample of particlesin vivo. Therefore, this method of estimating temperature can be usedfor any size distribution obtained in vivo or even changing sizedistributions. Indeed, the size distribution of the particles injectedmight be very different from the size distribution in any given positionin vivo but this should not affect the result because the calibrationcurve can be obtained in vivo at any time by changing the amplitude ofthe drive field. Indeed, the changes observed in successive calibrationcurves can be used to estimate other properties such as sizedistribution and kinetics. In addition, once the binding energy isknown, the bound fraction can be monitored longitudinally.

An example of a resulting estimate of H_(TE) is shown in FIG. 15, whichis a graph 1500 of a curve 1510 which plots measured points 1512, 1514and 1516 for the measurement H_(TE) versus Temperature (in degrees C.)in the exemplary implementation. As depicted, the H_(TE) estimate as afunction of temperature increases linearly with temperature as suggestedby Eq. 4. The spectrum at zero-bias field was used to estimate theH_(TE) and the Langevin function modeling H_(TE) is shown. The Langevinfunction matches the spectra well at low bias fields only showing thatthe particle output signal is dominated by larger nanoparticles at lowbias fields.

Estimates of the ratio H_(o)/H_(TE) can also be generated from the ratioof the signals at the third and the fifth harmonic frequencies with nobias field and H_(TE) itself can be estimated if H_(o) is also known andthe range of H_(TE) is known. The ratio of the signal at the third andfifth harmonic frequencies is independent of M_(o) and decreasesmonotonically between zeros in the fifth harmonic with increasing ratioH_(o)/H_(TE), so the ratio H_(o)/H_(TE) can be obtained uniquely fromthe ratio of the signals between harmonics. H_(TE) includes the effectof nanoparticle volume, v, and the bulk magnetization, M_(o), whichcompletely characterizes the nanoparticles for MPI if the nanoparticlesare of a single size. However, once these parameters are known at onetemperature, changes in temperature can be measured by measuring H_(TE),which is directly proportional to temperature. The accuracy of thesetemperature estimates depends on the size distribution of thenanoparticles.

As noted generally above, a basic application for the foregoingarrangements and procedures is for continuously measuring thetemperature of the magnetic nanoparticles used to heat cancer cells inmagnetic nanoparticle hyperthermia. A current limitation in theeffective use of hyperthermia treatment is it is difficult to ascertainhow hot the tissue becomes during heating. This difficulty arises inpart due to blood flow and other physiological variables which modulatetissue cooling in unknown ways. Inserted temperature probes only measuretemperature at one point. By measuring the spectrum of the nanoparticlemagnetization, the temperature of the nanoparticles can be evaluated inreal time. Using the imaging arrangement of FIG. 10, in which the sensedtemperature is coupled with an image of nanoparticle location, theresulting display image of the nanoparticles provides a visible atemperature map. Such a map can be displayed in grayscale or color inwhich differing colors and/or intensities represent differingtemperature values within a desired range, and at predeterminedlocations.

Other factors such as the binding energies of the nanoparticles maycomplicate the overall reading of nanoparticles. However theabove-described measurements may be adapted to compensate for secondaryfactors, thereby also providing estimates for those secondary factors.For example, it is contemplated that the principles described herein canbe adapted to estimate the strength of the bonds of the antibody tag. Orthe principles may be adapted to estimate the phase of the substrate inwhich the nanoparticles are imbedded/infused. Alternative, theseprinciples may be adapted to estimate the mechanical rigidity of thecell or extracellular matrix to which a nanoparticle is attached. Ingeneral each of the above conditions would tend to modulate the motionof the nanoparticle at a given temperature, and thus would be reflectedin H_(TE). By empirical and experimental techniques, the effects ofthese factors can be plotted and coefficients (or curves, etc.) tocharacterize and/or detect these factors can be determined.

Measurements of the signal at different static bias fields, or withdifferent amplitudes of the driving field, and/or with differentcombinations of frequencies of driving field all can be employed toprovide information about the ability of the nanoparticles to tumble orreverse magnetic polarization. This information can be used to estimatevarious physical properties for the nanoparticle environment.

In a further illustrative embodiment of a cancer-treatment procedure,particles with antibodies targeted for cancer cells are injected in thesubject. Following binding, a very large applied magnetic field is usedto heat the particles in the cancer. The ratio of the harmonics would beused to monitor heating to make sure therapeutic temperatures areachieved in the cancer. In another embodiment, the distribution of theapplied fields is changes using temperature information to achievebetter therapy. In another embodiment, the harmonics at a constanttemperature are used to measure the binding strength of the antibodytargeting agents for diagnostic or other purposes including thesuitability of therapy. In another embodiment, the harmonics at aconstant temperature are used to estimate the number of antibodytargeted particles that are bound and the number that are unbound fordiagnostic purposes or to know when to start therapy. In anotherembodiment, the harmonics are used to estimate when a phase change hasoccurred in the material in which the articles are located.

Reference is now made to FIG. 16 which details an illustrativeembodiment of an improvement to MPI device implementations, includingthe above-described sensing and localization embodiments, whichsignificantly increases their sensitivity and imaging accuracy. Thisarrangement 1600. By way of background, MPI typically imposes a puresinusoidal magnetic field on the sample of embedded nanoparticles.Because no hysteresis curve is perfectly linear, the magnetization ofthe magnetic nanoparticles is distorted slightly, which producesharmonics in the induced magnetization. The induced magnetizationproduces a signal in the pickup coils, and that signal exhibits energyat the harmonics of the drive frequency. Those harmonics are unique tothe nanoparticles and can be separated from the signal induced by thedrive field because they are at different frequencies. Currently, thenanoparticle output signal is measured in a somewhat conventional pickupcoil as described generally above. The exemplary embodiment of an MPIsystem 1600, instead, employs a DC current or radio-frequencySuperconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID) to increase thesensitivity of nanoparticle signal reception. The function of a SQUID,and its operation, is described in The SQUID Handbook, edited by JohnClarke and Alex I. Braginski, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2004, which isincorporated herein by reference as further background information. Byusing a SQUID the various harmonics in the above-described temperaturesensing embodiment are better resolved, particularly for higher-orderharmonics with correspondingly low signal outputs. In particular,conventional SQUID designs are capable of sensitivities on the order of10-15 Tesla which is many orders of magnitude below that of a coilcoupled to a traditional amplifier.

Further reference is now made to the exemplary MPI system 1600 of FIG.16 MPI system which uses a SQUID detector assembly 1610 as a pickupdevice. Note that the illustrative drive coil 1620 and imaging gradientcoils 1630 are similar, or identical to, those in previously describedembodiments and/or the prior art. These coils 1620, 1630 surround asubject or sample 1640 infused with nanoparticles. The pickup coil 1650resides over the sample 1640 and coils 1620, 1630, and is immersed in aninsulated container (a cryostat) 1660 containing liquid helium 1662 toinduce superconductivity (or the coil is otherwise held at a very lowtemperature using, for example cryogenic cooling jackets, etc.). TheSQUID device 1670 is interconnected to the coil 1650 and is alsoimmersed in the helium, or another low-temperature fluid 1662 to bemaintained at a very low temperature. The system's sensing electronics1680 interconnect to the SQUID and are located outside, adjacent to thecryostat 1660. The sensing electronics are part of, or interconnected toa data processor or other controller 1690 that also interconnects to thedrive and gradient coils 1620, 1630 as shown. A display and interface1692 provides image information and other data related to the sample1640. The extremely high sensitivity of the SQUID device 1670 enables avery accurate image, and/or temperature (or other data) reading withrespect to the sample 1640.

For optimal performance using the SQUID 1670 as a pickup device, thedrive frequency generated by the drive coil 1620 should be preventedfrom dominating the output signal of the nanoparticles at higherharmonics. This can be accomplished in several ways. For example, thedrive coil 1620 can be made resonant to the desired frequency, or abalancing coil can be placed at a location wherein it picks up the drivefield but not the field output from the sample by the nanoparticles.Alternatively, the detector can be placed beside the drive coils withmagnetic shielding between so the detector only observes the sample, andnot the drive coil itself.

It is expressly contemplated that the SQUID device shown and describedherein can be substituted for another form of “very-high-sensitivitypickup device” which can be employed in an illustrative imaging/sensingsystem in a generally similar position and manner. Thus, as used herein,that term should include other similar high-sensitivity devices, such asthe recently developed Spin Exchange Relaxation-Free (SERF)magnetometer. A description of such a device can be found, by way ofbackground, online in connection with the Princeton University PhysicsDepartment at the World Wide Web address:http://physics.princeton.edu/atomic/romalis/magnetometer/, the teachingsof which are incorporated herein by reference by way of background.

It is also expressly contemplated that, according to this invention, avery-high-sensitivity pickup device can be applied as a detection systemfor any acceptable imaging system or method, or even to a system that isdesigned primarily to quantify the number of nanoparticles in a sample,without imaging the sample. Likewise, the SQUID or otherhigh-sensitivity pickup can be incorporated into the imaging sensorsdescribed with reference to the above-described localization and imagingembodiments.

In accordance with this invention, the use of high-sensitivity pickupsallows a variety of further subject characteristics to be measured.These characteristics include, but are not limited to, binding energies,bound fraction of nanoparticles, binding kinetics, phase changes in thematerials containing the nanoparticles, and/or the stiffness of theelements the nanoparticles are bound to—such as extra-cellular matrix orcellular structures.

It is also contemplated generally that the MRI described above can beemployed with any of the embodiments herein to measure particularcharacteristics, including binding and temperature, of particles. Thisis performed in the fringe field of the MRI, allowing the anatomicalimages produced by MRI to be co-registered with the particle images andmeasurements obtained using MPI techniques. The coregistration processcan be accomplished using conventional image-handling techniques. Asshown by way of example, in FIG. 10, the various localization andimaging embodiments can include such optional MRI imaging 1070, which iscombined by the control and/or imaging components and software 1050 toproduce a combined/coregistered image on the display 1060. Likewise,various temperature and other particle-characteristic sense embodimentscan be combined with MRI imaging as depicted by way of example in FIG.16. As shown the optional MRI imaging has acquired anatomical (or other)images of the subject 1640, which are then combined/coregistered withparticle imaging using the controller components and software 1690 togenerate the combined image on the display 1692.

The foregoing has been a detailed description of illustrativeembodiments of the invention. Various modifications and additions can bemade without departing from the spirit and scope of this invention. Eachof the various embodiments described above may be combined with otherdescribed embodiments in order to provide multiple features.Furthermore, while the foregoing describes a number of separateembodiments of the apparatus and method of the present invention, whathas been described herein is merely illustrative of the application ofthe principles of the present invention. In particular, it iscontemplated that in most embodiments coils are arranged to generatefields that act in three dimensions, although one dimension of actionmay be shown for simplicity. The selection and arrangement of magneticcoils (or other selectively driven magnetic structures) should beapparent to those of ordinary skill. Moreover, the magneticfields-as-functions-of-time employed herein can include, but are notlimited, to linear and nonlinear magnetic field gradients, harmonicfields with different frequencies, different phases and different fieldorientations and fields that are arbitrary functions of time. Themagnetic fields can vary with position with equal generality. All of theabove-described embodiments can be employed as discrete systems andmethods or combined with MPI methods or the imaging methods describedhere or other imaging methods to create images of the parametersmeasured. For example, by combining a plurality of systems and methodstemperature maps or temperature images can be obtained instead ofdetermining the average temperature in a single volume. In addition,while control systems are shown schematically, it should be apparent tothose of ordinary skill that any acceptable arrangement of analog and/ordigital electronic hardware, software (consisting of computer readableprogram instructions in association with a processor) or a combinationof hardware and software can be employed to achieve the desired control,localization and other desired sensing and display functions. Also,while the exemplary experimental arrangement shown and described hereinfor the sensing of temperature is adapted for use on small samples, thescale of the arrangement can be altered in accordance with well-knowndesign techniques to accommodate larger samples and subjects includinghuman bodies. Likewise, a variety of additional scanning and measurementdevices can be employed in accordance with ordinary skill to provideadditional useful metrology. Accordingly, this description is meant tobe taken only by way of example, and not to otherwise limit the scope ofthis invention.

1. A system for magnetic particle imaging (MPI) using nanoparticlesinfused in a subject comprising: drive and selection coils that generatea magnetic field which provides a sub-saturation region within a subjectcontaining nanoparticles; sensors that read signals from nanoparticlesadjacent to the sub-saturation region; and supplemental coils thatprovide at least one of a static magnetic field offset that and agradient magnetic field so as to improve the localizationcharacteristics of the signals whereby imaging is improved.
 2. Thesystem as set froth in claim 1 further comprising an imaging system,operatively connected to the sensors and the control system thatlocalizes the nanoparticles based on the signals to thereby derive anMPI image.
 3. The system as set forth in claim 2 wherein the sensorsinclude a very-high-sensitivity pickup device.
 4. The system as setforth in claim 2 further comprising an MRI constructed and arranged toderive an MRI image of the subject and wherein the imaging system isconstructed and arranged to coregister the MPI image and the MRI image.5. A system for particle imaging (MPI) using nanoparticles infused in asubject comprising: a pair of drive coils that each generate a magneticfield which provides a sub-saturation region within a subject containingnanoparticles each of the drive coils; a control system that generatesmagnetic fields having each of two discrete frequencies in each of thepair of drive coils; sensors that read signals from nanoparticlesadjacent to the sub-saturation region; and an imaging system,operatively connected to the sensors and the control system thatlocalizes the nanoparticles based on the signals and in response toinformation derived from the two frequencies.
 6. The system as set forthin claim 5 further comprising an MRI constructed and arranged to derivean MRI image of the subject and wherein the imaging system isconstructed and arranged to coregister an image of the MPI and the MRIimage.
 7. A system for particle imaging (MPI) using nanoparticlesinfused in a subject comprising: a first pair of drive coils thatgenerate a magnetic field at one or more frequencies that cyclicallyreverse the magnetization of the particles; a control system thatgenerates magnetic fields in each of the pair of drive coils;supplemental coils that provide a static magnetic field offset that anda gradient magnetic field that, in turn, provides a sub-saturationregion within the subject containing nanoparticles so as to improve thecharacteristics of the signals, and wherein the control system isconstructed and arranged to increment the static magnetic field offsetand the gradient magnetic field offset; sensors that read signals fromnanoparticles adjacent to the sub-saturation region; and an imagingsystem, operatively connected to the sensors and the control system thatlocalizes the nanoparticles based on the signals and in responseharmonics in the signals and the incrementing of the static magneticfield offset and the gradient magnetic field offset.
 8. The system asset forth in claim 7 further comprising an MRI constructed and arrangedto derive an MRI image of the subject and wherein the imaging system isconstructed and arranged to coregister an image of the MPI and the MRIimage.
 9. The system as set forth in claim 7 further comprising at leastsecond pair of drive coils that generate a magnetic field at one or morefrequencies that cyclically reverse the magnetization of the particles.10. The system as set forth in claim 7 wherein the sensors include avery-high-sensitivity pickup device.
 11. A method for magnetic particleimaging (MPI) using nanoparticles infused in a subject comprising thesteps of: generating, with drive and selection coils, a magnetic fieldwhich provides a sub-saturation region within a subject containingnanoparticles; reading, with sensors, signals from nanoparticlesadjacent to the sub-saturation region; and providing, with supplementalcoils, at least one of a static magnetic field offset that and agradient magnetic field so as to improve the characteristics of thesignals.
 12. The method as set forth in claim 11 further comprisinglocalizing, with an imaging system, operatively connected to the sensorsand the control system, the nanoparticles based on the signals.
 13. Themethod as set forth in claim 11 further comprising providing an MRI thatderives an MRI image of the subject and coregistering an image of theMPI and the MRI image.
 14. A system for detecting temperature and othercharacteristics of magnetic nanoparticles within the interior of asubject comprising: a pickup device that detects output signals producedin the nanoparticles and from which the temperature is calculated; andsensing circuitry that determines and displays at least one of thetemperature and the other characteristics from an output of the pickupdevice.
 15. The system as set forth in claim 14 wherein the sensingcircuitry determines the temperature and the other characteristics basedupon spectra of magnetization of the nanoparticles using a Langevinfunction and a plurality of harmonics of the output signal.
 16. Thesystem as set forth in claim 15 further comprising an imaging coilassembly operatively connected with the sensing circuitry so as togenerate images of the nanoparticles with respect to at least one of thetemperature and the other characteristics.
 17. The system as set forthin claim 16 wherein the other characteristics include binding energiesof the nanoparticles and phase changes or stiffness of materials orcells of the subject interior to which the nanoparticles are connected.18. The system as set forth in claim 16 wherein the pickup devicecomprises a very-high-sensitivity pickup device.
 19. The system as setforth in claim 18 wherein the very-high-sensitivity pickup devicecomprises one of a SQUID or a SERF magnetometer.
 20. The system as setforth in claim 16 further comprising an MRI constructed and arranged toderive an anatomical MRI image of the subject and wherein images of thenanoparticles are coregistered with the anatomical MRI image.
 21. Amethod for detecting temperature and other characteristics of magneticnanoparticles within the interior of a subject comprising: elevating thetemperature and producing the other characteristics in the nanoparticleswithin the interior of the subject; detecting output signals produced inthe nanoparticles as a result of the elevating; and determining, basedupon the detecting, and displaying at least one of the temperature andthe other characteristics.
 22. A system of detecting characteristics ofmagnetic nanoparticles within the interior of a subject comprising; adriver that induces detectable output signals in the nanoparticleswithin the interior of the subject; a very-high-sensitivity pickupdevice that detects the output signals; and a sensing circuit anddisplay assembly, operatively connected to the very-high-sensitivitypickup device that, respectively, determines the characteristics anddisplays the characteristics.
 23. The system as set forth in claim 22wherein the characteristics include at least one of binding energies,bound fraction of particles, binding kinetics, phase changes in thematerials containing the particles, and stiffness of elements to whichthe nanoparticles are bound.
 24. The system as set forth in claim 23further comprising magnetic particle imaging coils and interconnectedmagnetic nanoparticle imaging circuitry, and wherein the sensingcircuitry is operatively connected with the magnetic nanoparticleimaging circuitry and wherein the display is constructed an arranged toprovide images of the nanoparticles.
 25. The system as set forth inclaim 24 further comprising an MRI constructed and arranged to derive ananatomical MRI image of the subject and wherein images of thenanoparticles are coregistered with the anatomical MRI image.
 26. Thesystem as set forth in claim 22 wherein the very-high-sensitivity pickupdevice comprises a SQUID.
 27. The system as set forth in claim 22wherein the very-high-sensitivity pickup device comprises a SERFmagnetometer.